I am creating a blog to open people’s minds to new ideas. It will be about my many interests such as astrology, astronomy, finances, science, history, mythology, religion, etc. I will also accept ideas from other people.
Introduction
This kingdom was the successor of Meroe. It lasted for a millennium. It was located in modern-day Nothern Sudan and Southern Egypt. It had strong government and economy. They followed a religion similar to the Kemetiansand then became Christian. Makuria had a great culture.
History
The Makurians were the first to defeat the Arabs during their jihads. The Arabs conquered Egypt but were unable to conquer Makuria. The Makurians made a deal with the Arabs. The deal was Egypt would give Makuria manufactured goods and Arabs got special trading privileges and slaves.
Makuria incorporated nearby kingdoms in its fold. Makuria protected Christians in Upper Egypt. After Fatimid dynasty came to power Egypt, Makuria became close friends with it. Makuria exported ivory, ostrich feathers, cattle, and slaves to Egypt. Egypt exported linen, wheat, and wine to Makuria.
When Ayyubid dynasty came to power in Egypt, Makuria turned away from it. Makuria invaded Egypt but got pushed back. Then Egypt invaded Makuria and ruled a part of it 4 several years. After that Egypt left Makuria alone.
Makuria was constantly attacked by Bedouins and a large number of Arabic men moved in. Makuria went to war with Egypt when the Mamelukes tookover. Long story short the Egypt conquered this kingdom around 1517.
Government
The king ruled from Dongola. He was a priest and performed mass. The king consulted with a council of bishops b4 he made decisions. There was a viceroy to Nobatia after Makuria conquered it. He controlled trade with Egypt and was a diplomat. At first, viceroys were select by the king. Later on, it was by bloodline.
Economy
The economy was based on farming. Pottery was produced and there was a lot of weaving. Metalworking and leatherworking were common. Gold was mined. Makuria didn't have any currency. People from other parts of Africa were sold as slaves from Makuria to Egypt. Makuria had a diplomatic relationship with Axum.
Religion
Makuria followed the Christianity of Byzantine at first. Then it became Coptic. The pope of the Copic Church appointed Nubian bishops in Makuria. Christianity died out in the 1500's and Islam became the dominant religion.
They should have held on to their ancestral religions. It's power in the ways of the ancestors. African Traditional Religions are far superior to Christianity and Islam. It is the mother of both. The Hebrews originally were African and were greatly influenced by them.
Culture
They made a lot of Christan paintings. Their artistic style was influenced by Byzantine and Egypt. They made some exquisite pottery and they also imported some. Most of the people in Makuria spoke Nubian, but the upper-class spoke and wrote Greek. Now Arabic is popular in Egypt & Sudan.
Conclusion
Makuria has a long and eventful history. It was a Christian nation with sweet culture. It had an efficient government and a nice economy. I give it a B.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuria
http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaSudan.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Makuria
https://blog.britishmuseum.org/tag/makuria/ Polish Discovery of Makuria History of Makuria Makuria
Introduction
This kingdom was located in Somalia. This nation started in the 1300's and declined in the 1700's. It had an efficient government, strong economy, and taxation. They traded a lot with nations. They had a strong military. It was attacked by Oromia and Portugal. This was a hydraulic kingdom. It had several important cities. It had its own culture and was Islamic.
Government
Imam-King
Emir-Captain of the navy and army Na'ibs-Viceroys
Wazirs-Tax collectors Qadis-Chief judges Sharia law was the law of the land.
Economy
The economy was based on maritime trade. Ajuran was part of the silk trade and it minted its own currency.
'Ajuran exported animals and ivory to China. It imported greenware from China.
Ajuran exported gold, wax, and wood to India. It imported cloth and spices.
Ajuran exported cloth to the Jaffna Kingdom. It imported cinnamon.
Ajuran exported musk and sheep to the Maldives. It imported cowries.
Ajuran exported cloth and gold to the Malacca Sultanate. It imported porcelain and ambergris.
Ajuran exported textiles to the Ottoman Empire. It imported muskets and cannons.
Ajuran exported grain and wood to the Persian Empire. It imported textiles and fruit. Ajuran exported cloth to Portugal. It imported gold. Ajuran exported spices and cloth with Mutapa. It imported gold and Ivory.
Ajuran exported cloth to Gonderine Empire. It imported gold and cattle.'
Ajuran traded with Swahililand and other kingdoms well.
Taxation
Farmers crops were taxed and so was nomads cattle. Governors in coastal cities would bring the Imam foreign goods. Ajuran used its own currency for trade.
Military
Most of the soldiers in the military were Mamelukes. Mamelukes were Turkish slaves. Mercenaries from other nations were used as well. Ajuran imported guns from the Ottoman Empire.
Wars
Ajuran fought the Portuguese and was able to defeat them with the help of the Ottoman Empire. The Portuguese burned down a city in Ajuran. Then they were going to conquer Mogadishu. The Somalis were ready to engage the Portuguese in mortal combat at Mogadishu, so they sailed away. With the help of the Ottoman, Ajuran set some Swahili city-states free. A Portuguese fleet from India recaptured the cities.
The Oromo was expanding their kingdom on the heels of Ajuran. In response to this Ajuran attacked the Oromo and converted p.o.ws to Islam. The Oromo attacked other kingdoms after this. It caused great turmoil. One of those kingdoms they attacked is was Ethiopia.
Hydraulic Kingdom
Ajuran was the only East African nation at the time that controlled its own water source. They created limestone wells that are still in use today. They controlled Jubba and Shabelle rivers. Nomads had easy access to water for their cattle.
Prominent Cities
Mareeg-This city was founded in the 1600's. It was an outpost.
Kelafo-This city was the capital of Ajuran. It was founded in the 1300's.
Merca-This city was found over a millennium ago by the Bimaal clan.
Mogadishu-Arabs called it the land of the Berbers. It is the capital of Somalia.
Culture
Its culture was Somali. People studied astronomy and built castles. Istunka is a martial art that was created in Ajuran. Men were carvers and women weaved. Even nomads carved wood! Muslims from Spain, Arabia. India and Persia moved into Ajuran after the 1400's. Most people in Ajuran were Sunni Muslims. The Persians were the only Shia there.
Conclusion
This was a great kingdom!!! It had sweet culture and cities. It was hydraulic and had a nice economy. It had a strong military and wise government. It traded with a lot of other nations. Oh yeah, it fell off because of political disputes and rebels. I give kingdom an A+.
Introduction
The Swahili culture is over 1,00 years old!!! Swahililand (all Swahili city-states) was very prominent. The Swahili traded with a lot of people. They have their own language called Kiswahili. They became Islamic to avoid being enslaved by Arabs. They were great builders and sculptors. The Portuguese destroyed Swahililand.
History
Swahililand started around 1200 years ago!!! There were over 100 Swahili city-states. The Swahili tribe are of Bantu extraction. They are located in Mozambique, Kenya, and Tanzania. They're orthodox Muslims. Some Swahili women married Arab men centuries ago. The Swahili were great traders. Soccer is popular among Swahili boys.
Swahililand City-States
Zanzibar: It is an island off the coast of Tanzania. The Swahili live on this island. Persians, Arabs, Indians, English, Portuguese, and Malagasy came to the island. They mixed with the Swahili. The people on this island lost their tribal identity. They celebrate holidays from these various tribes. Most people are farmers and fishermen.
Kilwa: Stone structures were built there a millennium ago. A mosque was built at this time as well. A palace was built in the 1300's. They traded ivory, iron, slaves, and gold. Gold coins were made here. This city-state trade with China more than any other city-state. Ibn Battuta was a traveler. He said Kilwa was the greatest country he every been too.
Economy
The economy was based on trade. The Swahili traded with other Africans and Arabs, Persians, Chinese, and Indians. They exported ivory, gold, grain, gold, slaves, etc. They imported beads, weapons, porcelain, and textiles. They were trading items they got from other Africans. I assume they gave Africans the items they got from the people across the sea.
Language
Kiswahili is a Bantu language. Bantu languages are part of the Niger-Congo language family. Kiswahili is spoken by over 100 million people. There is Arabic vocabulary in Kiswahili. The Arabic script is used for writing. Kiswahili is the official language of Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. The word Swahili means coastal dweller. It's an Arabic word.
Religion
B4 the Swahili became Islamic, they followed a Traditional African Religion. I assume they had the same beliefs of other Bantu tribes. A Swahili chief was kidnapped by Arabs and taken to Yemen. He escaped and went back to his village. He taught his people Islam. By doing so he saved them from slavery. Today most Swahili are Sunni Muslims.
Art
Many mosques were built in Swahililand. They created roads and other buildings. A lot of their designs are geometric, which remind me of the Kuba. Swahili people artistic style was influenced by Arab, Persian, Chinese, and Indian art. They make sweet sculptures because they're Bantu. Niger-Congo people are greatest sculptors.
End of Swahililand
The Portuguese came to Swahililand and saw how rich it was; so they decided to conquer it. They took over Swahililand. If any city resisted they were destroyed. They stole lots of goods and ruled Swahililand for a century. The Portuguese destroyed the Kongo Kingdom too.
Conclusion
The Swahili have a long history. They have a great culture and they are great people. Their language is sweet; I tried to learn, but couldn't. They traded with Africans farther inland and with people across the Indian Ocean. I give Swahililand a B+.
Introduction
The Lunda Kingdom started in 1665 and end in 1887. It had a sweet government and religion. It had a strong economy and it was involved in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. There was sweet art in this kingdom.
History
A Luba prince married a princess from another nation, their son founded the Lunda Kingdom. The Lunda Kingdom became an empire by conquering other kingdoms. The member states of the empire were able to retain their own culture. Other countries were created by people from this kingdom.
A lot of the art in this kingdom was made out of wood. The Lunda Kingdom borrowed many artistic ideas from neighboring nations.
The Lunda Kingdom was invaded by members of the Chokwe. After that, the Lunda Kingdom became a lot less powerful.
Government
Mwaantaangaand: King
Mwaant Yaav: Empreror
Lukonkeshia: Queen Mother. Her authority was second only to the Mwaant Yaav.
Royal Council: Something like congress.
Kawatta: Police force. Collected tribute and protected foreigners.
The government had checks and balances.
Religion
Nzampi-Supreme Being. 'He was known as the protector of the poor.' He gave people the ability to create their own destiny.
Ancestral Spirits-Spirts of our foremothers and forefathers. People honored them in rituals, named their children after them, and talked about them.
Tahi-Diviners. People consulted them to find out which ancestor to venerate.
Economy
The economy was based on farming, hunting, fishing, and trading. Women were farmers and men hunted. Salt, slaves, ivory, and copper was traded. The Lunda Kingdom traded with other Africans, Arabs, and Portuguese. The Lunda Empire may have been one of the largest slave exporting nations in Africa. The slaves that were sold were criminals.
Conclusion
The Lunda Kingdom was a great place to live. It had a great religion and government. It had nice art too. It had a robust economy and criminals were sold to Arabs and Portuguese. I give this kingdom a B+.
Introduction
The Kuba Kingdom started around 1625. There were 19 tribes in this kingdom. This kingdom had great government, economy, religion, architecture, clothing, and art. This kingdom still exist today!
Origin
This kingdom lasted for over 200 years. Shyaam a-Mbul unified various villages, which became the Kuba Kingdom. He was the adopted son of a queen. He went to other kingdoms and learned. He brought back new food, technology, and made the government more merit based. There was 18 known nyims.
Tribe
Bakuba: They are descendants of the tribes that existed in the Kuba Kingdom. They farm corn, cassava, millet, peanuts, and beans. They are matrilineal. The ruling clan is called Bushongo.
Twa: A pygmy tribe. They are great hunters. They lived in forests and traded game with the Bantu tribes for farm goods.
Government
Nyim: King, has to be a member of the Bushongo clan.
Clan Council: This was a group of people from each clan/tribe. They were similar to Congress.
Economy
Iron, tree powder, beads, cowry shells, and Raffia cloth was used as currency. They fished, hunted, and farmed. Food was abundant, so the population grew.
Religion
Bumba: Supreme Being
Woot: First person on earth. Helps people meet their needs.
Dogs: Messengers of deities.
Ngesh: Nature spirits.
Architecture
The buildings are rectangular. The size and decorations of buildings show the rank of the occupants. Geometric patterns are on the outside of building.
Clothing
The different clothes the king wore, were for different purposes. Bwaantshy is the nyim most important outfit. It is made out of animal skin and cowry shells.
Different patterns on clothes have different meanings. Some of the patterns show a person's social status. There are over 200 hundred patterns. Art
Masks: Used by royalty and for initiation. They contain the spirit of what they represent. People can only wear masks if the nyim let them. There are mask festivals.
Mwaash aMbooy: Mask that represents the nyim.
Bwoom: This mask represents the brother of Woot and commoners.
Ngady a Mwash: These masks are used at funerals and initiations.
Wood Carvings: Their cups have faces of famous people on them. There are cosmetic boxes that contain tree powder that is used on dead bodies 4 funerals.
Conclusion
The Kuba Kingdom is amazing!!! They have sweet culture. They are one of the greatest kingdoms I ever wrote about. The Kuba Kingdom is located in the Democratic Republic of Congo. They get an A+.
References
http://www.afropedea.org/kuba-kingdom
https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Kuba
https://www.ifw-kiel.de/konfer/staff-seminar/paper/2014/Robinson.pdf
http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2014/02/kuba-people-most-artistic-and-highly.html
https://www.cato.org/publications/research-briefs-economic-policy/evolution-culture-institutions-evidence-kuba-kingdom
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kuba-people
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngesh Kuba Art Kuba Cloth Kuba Mask Kuba Cup
Introduction
The Luba Kingdom lasted for over (1585-1889) 300 years! The Baluba tribe created the kingdom or the children of the creators. It had a great government, economy, religion, and art.
History
The ancestors of the Baluba people lived in Central Africa a millennium b4 the Luba Kingdom. They were farmers, fishermen, and metalworkers. They traded with people in the forest. They even imported glass beads from people across the Indian Ocean.
The Nkongolo dynasty created the a nation that was the mother of the Luba Kingdom. A hunter married a Nkongolo women and he became king. He conquered various regions and he may have introduced the bow and arrow to Central Africa.
Belgians and Arabs kidnapped a lot of people in the Luba Kingdom. The kingdom split into 2 kingdoms after a succession dispute. Then it became part of the Belgian Congo Free State.
Tribe
Baluba: They are a Bantu tribe and the main tribe of the Luba Kingdom. They may have been a mixture of various tribes in the Luba Kingdom. They are great at carving wood. They are farmers, fishermen, and cattle herders.
Government
Mulopwe: King, all the kings were descended from hunter that married the Nkongolo lady.
Bamfumus: Council of nobles
Balopwe: Chiefs; they were like governors.
Mwadi: Female incarnation of mulopwe.
Bambudye: Secret society of professors and griots of Luba history.
Mbudye: Men of memory. Griots of the kings.
Economy
The Luba was great at trading. The traded with people near the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. They imported or exported copper, iron, and salt. All of this trade made them rich.
The muja and umbidi are separate, but connected. What happens to one affects the other. When something is touched a person's energy is left on it. Like a fingerprint. When people die they go to live with their ancestors under earth. Ancestors watch other their descendants. They contact them through dreams and lubuko. The muja reincarnates 3 times as human and 1 time as animal. After that it stays in the spirit world. If people don't honor their ancestors their lives will be ruined. Common people and kitobo in the Luba Kingdom perform prayers, invocations, offerings and other rituals.
Art
Artists made a lot of sculptures. Women were popular in Luba art because they were important in society. Royal art was abundant. Masks held great importance. Mulopwe set on stools and their feet couldn't touch the ground because they were demigods. It was said only a woman is strong enough to hold a powerful king spirit. The elite used headrests at night while sleeping. Memory beads were used by mbudye. The different colored beads represented different memories.
Conclusion
The Luba kingdom was amazing!!!!!!! It had great government, economy, religion and art. I love Baluba people!!!!!!!!!! The Luba religion is very modern. The had a big impact on the Lunda Kingdom. I give this kingdom an A++.
References
http://blackhistoryeveryday.tumblr.com/post/44933590602/luba-kingdom
http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/luba-religion
http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2014/08/luba-baluba-people-highly-spiritual.html
https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Luba
https://www.lotusmasks.com/luba-african-masks
http://www.afropedea.org/luba-empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba
http://www.lacma.org/sites/default/files/2.%20Introductory%20Essay.pdf Luba Kingdom Luba Art More Luba Luba Song
Introduction
The Kongo Kingdom lasted for over (1390-1914) 500 years! The Bakongo tribe created the Kongo Kingdom. It had its own government and religion. It had a great art. Bakongo were brought to the Americas. The Bakongo had a lot to do with the creation of religion in the Africa Diaspora.
History
Lukeni lua Nimi was the first Manikongo. He founded the Kongo Kingdom. His parents were leaders of 2 kingdoms that married each other. The Kongo Kingdom was an empire because other states were a part of it.
The Portuguese contacted the kingdom in 1482. King Nzinga a Nkuwu was baptized by the Portuguese and changed his name into Jose I. Christianity became the religion of the Kongo Kingdom. The government became more European after this. Christianity became one of many cults in the Kongo Kingdom.
The Kongo Kingdom bartered slaves with Portugal. The Portuguese kidnapped people in the Kongo. A Kongo prince was kidnapped, so the Manikongo sent a letter to the King of Portugal about it. The Pope sent a letter back saying it's not a big deal because there's a lot of people in the Kongo.
The Jaga invasion caused a recession in the Kongo; which caused extreme poverty. In response to this, people sold their relatives to Portuguese. Even nobility was sold. The Manikongo was able to save most of the people sold. Slaves were the only currency Portugal took from the Kongo. There were civil wars in the Kongo because of slavery.
In 1641 a providence of Kongo revolted. The Manikongo teamed up with the Dutch to stop the Portuguese from kidnapping people. In 1665 the Portuguese invaded. They defeated the army and killed the Manikongo. To men fought other who should be the next Mainkongo.
The Portuguese helped the Kongo defeat the rebels from an independent providence. The Kongo split into 2 kingdoms. Each kingdom had its own capital. More factions were created and they warred with each other.
It was decided at the Berlin Conference that the Kongo would be ruled by Portugal. The Portuguese incorporated the Kongo Kingdom into Angola. It stopped being a kingdom in the 1900's.
Tribe
Bakongoisa mixture of Bantu tribes. They have been farming for over 2000 years! They speak their own language called Kikongo. Their language is part of the Niger-Congo language family. Some of them are hunters, others are fishermen. They are matrilineal, which means inheritance comes from the mother. They have rites of passage: rituals that turn boys 2 men and girls to women.
Social Strafication
Manikongo-King
Nobility-Upper class people. They elected the Manikongo.
Freeperson: Middle-class people.
Slave: People that weren't free.
Religion
The Bakongo people believed in a creator (Nzambi), ancestors, and deities. They believed in reincarnation. Reincarnation was a common Bantu belief. Minkisi are statues that have magical powers. Cosmogram represents the land of the spirit and land of the flesh.
Art
Artists in the Kongo made a lot of sculptures out of ivory. They created great pottery and jewelry. They made great masks that were worn at funerals and court. There were whistles made out of antelope horns. Manikongo had staffs with statues of women on them because they were matrilineal.
Bakongo Religion in the America
Millions of Bakongo people were brought to America. My triple great grandmama may have been a Bakongo lady. That is so sweet!!!!!!
Haitian Vodou-Congo Nation (group of deities)
New Orleans Voodoo-Congo Square, Minkisi, etc
Umbanda-This religion was created or influenced by Bakongo
Quimbanda-Fire spirits, deities, and other practices came from the Bakongo.
Palo Mayombe-This religion/magical system was created by Bakongo.
Hoodoo-Bakongo people help create/influence Hoodoo.
Conclusion
The Kongo Kingdom would have been great place had they not dealt with Europeans. The downfall of the Kongo was dealing with Europeans and embracing Christianity. I love Bakongo people. I want them to be a great success. They have sweet religion, art, philosophy, science, etc. The Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo is named after the Kongo.
References
https://www.britannica.com/place/Kongo-historical-kingdom-Africa
http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914
https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/kongo
http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaAngola.htm
http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Brazil-to-Congo-Republic-of/Bakongo.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kongo-people
http://bakongopeople.weebly.com/
http://www.webarchaeology.com/html/kongocos.htm
http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Other_religions/kongo_religion.htm
http://daeunstripstokongo.blogspot.com/2012/04/politics-of-kongo.html
http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2013/05/pre-colonial-african-kingdom-of-kongo.html
http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/sub/kongo.html
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1979.206.127/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/nkisi
https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~sulli20c/classweb/Kongolese_ReligiousBeliefs.html
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kong/hd_kong.htm
http://www.african-art.net/ethnicity/kongo/africa-black-life-rituals
http://www.metmuseum.org/press/exhibitions/2015/kongo
http://www.african-art.net/ethnicity/kongo/africa-black-life-rituals
http://www.africamuseum.be/research/publications/rmca/music/kongo-mbata
http://houseofquimbanda.org/quimbanda/
http://blackbluedog.com/2013/01/news/hoodoo-the-exploited-forgotten-african-religion/
https://destee.com/threads/nsambi-nkisi-bakongo-cosmology.44755/
https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/lowCountry_furthRdg4.htm Kongo Kingdom Kongo Art Kongo Cosmogram Nkisi
Introduction
Carthage was founded in the 9th-century BCE. Carthage became wealthy after more Syrians moved in. It became a great trading city. Carthage fought 3 wars with Rome. It's called the Punic Wars. It became a great center of Christianity. Carthage had its form of government and military. They had exquisite art and their religion was largely derived from Canaan.
History
Carthage is located on the coast of modern-day Tunisia. It was founded by Queen Dido in 813 BCE. She left the city of Tyre when her life was threatened. B4 she got to Tunisia she picked up a priest of Astarte in Cyprus. He became the high priest of Carthage. 80 sacred hoes of Astarte went with them.
After Alexander the Great took over Tyre, wealthy Tyrians moved to Carthage. This caused a boom in Carthage economy. The new arrivals displaced some of Berber and enslaved some of them. Carthaginians traded with different nations in the Mediterrian.
Carthage and Greece fought over Sicily for 2 centuries. Carthage had an alliance with Etruria, which helped them defeat the Greeks. Carthage (C) conquered Southern Spain in 500 BCE. Carthage lost a battle in Syracuse in 480 BCE. C destroys Agrigento in 406 BCE. There were several battles in Sicily involving Carthage.
To Sicilian city-states start bangin. Mamertines (Men of Mars) ask Carthage for help. They came to their aid. Mamertines went behind the back of Carthage and asked Rome to attack the Carthaginians. This started the first Punic War. The Mamertines were upset Carthaginians were occupying their land; that why they asked for Romes help.
First Punic War: It was from 264-241 BCE. Most of the battles were navel. Rome got Carthage out of Sicily.
2nd Punic War: Hannibal attacked a Roman city in Spain. Rome wanted Hannibal expedited, but Carthage refused. This caused the 2nd Punic War. Hannibal found out Roman armies were coming to get him. Hannibal and his army went into the Alps to defeat the Romans. He had elephants in his army. Mountain people threw boulders at Hannibal army. He defeated many Romans and gained many allies. Carthage wouldn't send Hannibal more troops and supplies. Scipio Africanus attacked Carthage and conquered it. Hannibal drunk poison when he was 67. He did it so he wouldn't be captured by the Romans.
Third Punic War: Carthage got finish paying their war debt to Rome 50 years after the 2nd Punic War. Carthage went to war with Numida and lost. C had to pay a war debt to Numida. Rome destroyed Carthage after it went to war. It burned down the city.
The Romans rebuilt Carthage and it became a center of Christianity. Tertullian and Cyprian came from Carthage. They were heavyweights in early Christianity.
Carthage was conquered by Muslims in 698 CE.
Economy
Carthage traded with many nations in the Mediterranean. Metals, animals, weapons, jewelry, glasswork, and many other products were traded. Carthage got gold and silver from Britain. They traded with various regions of Africa.
Government
Politicians were elected by the public assembly. Carthage was ruled by an aristocracy. Carthage had 2 prime ministers. It had a Senate that created laws. There were judges that ruled over court cases. The public assembly decided on which law get passed.
Military
Commanders of the Carthaginian army usually acted on their own fruition. Different families owned different militias. The families would let the government use their militias during wars. Mecereneries were an important component in the Carthaginian army. The soldiers wore animal skins and jewelry into battle.
Vehicles: Chariots had blades on their wheels. There were 2 men in the chariot. They were the driver and an archer. War Elephants were used. They had weapons added to them. It was steered by one man and another man used a crossbow or a javelin.
Weapons: Swords, shields, sling shots, crossbow, etc.
Navy: This branch of the military was even stronger than the army. It had many warships.
Art
Artistic style in Carthage was influenced by Egyptian, Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. They created a lot of jewelry and sculpture. They made religious art. They put faces of famous people on their coins.
Religion
The Carthaginians were polytheistic. Melquart was worshiped there. Melquart was the patron god of Tyre. Baal was an important god too. Aset, Eshmun, Reshef, Rasap, Shadrap, Hawot, and many other deities were worshiped here. Taint was a popular mother goddess and the wife of Baal.
Conclusion
Carthage has a rich history. It had good governmental structure and military. It had sweet art and religion. I give them a B.
References
http://www.ancient.eu/carthage/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Government/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Naval_Warfare/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Warfare/
http://www.ancient.eu/Berbers/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Army/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Religion/
http://www.ancient.eu/Carthaginian_Art/
http://www.ancient.eu/Dido/
http://www.ancient.eu/Punic_Wars/
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/aristocracy
http://www.ancient.eu/article/911/ Carthage What if Carthage beat Rome? Carthage People St. Cyprian Hannibal
Introduction
Morocco has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Then there was a jihad and after that, the Berbers took over. The Arabs took over after the Berbers. It was the first country to recognize the statehood of the U.S. The French conquered Morocco and Spain owned bits and pieces of it. Morocco became independent in 1957. Morocco is ruled by a king and it has its own military. It has a strong economy and 2 major languages. Morocco has a sweet culture and cuisine.
Prehistory
Aterian: It's the first culture in Morocco and the Middle East. They are earliest known people to have jewelry. They were the first known people to use a bow and arrow. They disappeared because of the ice age. This culture was over 100,000 years old.
Iberomaurusian: This was the next culture in Morocco. The people of this culture were hunters-gathers. The hunted gazelles, horses, and sheep. They had big skeletons.
Capsian: This culture came from the Iberomaurusian. It lasted for 4,000 years! They ate a lot of animals and not that many vegetables. They may have domesticated an animal similar to a goat.
Ancient History
Ancient Morocco became a part of Carthaginian Empire. After that, it became a part of the Roman Empire. It was also a part of Numidia. Numidia lasted for over a century. Rome defeated Numidia and incorporated into its empire.
History
In 670 CE the Muslims conquered Morocco. The Berber became Muslims after Salih I Ibn Mansur encouraged them to convert. He founded the kingdom Nekor. His dynasty ruled Nekor for 300 years. In 859 CE the Viking attacked Nekor, but they didn't conquer it. Nekor was conquered 1019 by a Yemenite.
Almoravids, Almohads, and then Marinid were Berber dynasties that ruled Morocco from 1000-1548. Morocco ruled Iberia for several centuries during this time. After the Moors fell in 1492, many Muslims and Jews in Spain moved to Morocco at that time.
In 1549 Arabs took over Morocco (M). The Saadi dynasty was the first Arab dynasty to rule Morocco. It ruled for a century and a decade. They kept the Turks and Portuguese from taking over M. M conquered Songhai Empire in 1591. M became very wealthy because of this. After Al-Mansur died his sons fought each other over rulership. M fell apart because of this.
The Alaouite dynasty came to power in the 17th century. They put M back together again. This dynasty is in charge today. This dynasty has been in M since the 13th century!
Morocco made a treaty with the U.S. called Treaty of Peace and Friendship. It was signed on 1786. The treaty as lasted for over 200 years! This is the longest treaty the U.S. ever had.
In 1884 Spain took control of the coastal areas of Morocco. The French conquered parts of Morocco. Other European nations took control of parts of Morocco. Mohammed V was exiled to Madagascar by France from 1953-55. They put another king in power, but the people didn't like him. Mohammed came back and became the king of the rest of Morocco in the following year.
There has been a lot of human right abuses since independence.
Politics
The government is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. People vote in the parties that become the legislative branch.
Sultan (king): He appoints the prime minister from the winning political party. He has the power to dismiss a prime minister if he chooses. He controls foreign policy and religious matters. He is the commander and chief of the military.
Executive Branch: The prime minister is the leader of this branch. He has the power yo dissolve the parliament.
Judicial Branch: The king appoints the judges to the Supreme Court. He also appoints the governors for 12 administrative districts.
Military
Army: This branch of the military been around for over 1,000 years. It has fought in several conflicts.
Navy: It has been around for over 1,000 years as well. The modern version of it started in 1960. It keeps Morocco coast safe. It may have stop Crusaders from invading Egypt.
Air Force: It was created in 1956. They fought in the Sand War and Yom Kippur. They dropped bombs on ISIS. It has been modernized.
Gendarmerie: Military police.
Royal Guard: They protect the royal family.
Economy
It is the 5th largest economy in Africa. Most of Morocco's $ come from farming, tourism, and phosphates. M are great at mining and sells a lot of weed. M make a bunch of textiles and sells it to the EU. M has many lucrative industries. Construction and real estate are booming and so is foreign investment.
Languages
Berber: There are 3 dialects of this language spoken in M. It is a member of the Afro-Asian language family.
Hassaniya Arabic: This dialect of Arabic is spoken by Moors.
Judeo-Moroccan Arabic: This form of Arabic is spoken by Jews.
Standard Arabic: This form of Arabic is spoken all over North Africa and the Middle East.
Spanish: It is spoken by 20,000 people.
French: Most Moroccans can speak this language.
Culture
Morocco culture is a mixture of Amazigh, Arab, Jewish, French, and Spanish cultures. Many poems and essays are written in M. There are great authors and painters in M. Most Moroccans follow Sunni Islam. There are many Christians in Morocco. Most Jews that lived in Morocco moved to Israel. It's about 300 people that fellow Baha'i religion. There are over 300,000 people that are atheists. Christians aren't allowed to have a bible nor spread the word. Morocco has many different types of music.
Cusine
Spices are used often in the food. Whenever they have a meal, bread is eaten. That reminds me of my tribe. Moroccans like to drink sweet mint tea. They eat hot and cold salads. They eat fruit for dessert. A lot of seafood is consumed. They drink a lot of OJ. Oranges are plentiful so OJ is cheap.
Conclusion
Morocco is a sweet country! It has a rich history and culture. A tasty and healthy cuisine. An economy that is always improving. It has neat languages and military. I give it a B+.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aterian
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aterian-industry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberomaurusian
http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2013/07/origin-of-iberomaurusian.html
http://www.aggsbach.de/2011/04/iberomaurusian/
https://infogalactic.com/info/Capsian_culture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salih_I_ibn_Mansur
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nekor
http://www.morocco.com/blog/the-ancient-kingdom-of-nekor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco%E2%80%93United_States_relations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_VI_of_Morocco
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Morocco
http://www.morocco.com/culture/language/
https://www.britannica.com/place/Morocco/Education#ref846442
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/morocco/moroccov.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco
http://www.morocco.com/music/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_cuisine Morocco Power History of Morocco Facts about Morocco Moroccan Spirit
Introduction
The Songhai Empire (SE) lasted over a century. It was created by a tribe of diverse origin. The empire lasted over a century and it was very Islamic. Gao was the capital and Timbuktu and Djenne were the most important cities. This empire had a robust economy. SE had a nice government and followed Sharia law. The military was strong too.
Origin
The Songhai tribe came from 4 different tribes coming together. The Sorko tribe lived in Gao and they were fishermen. The Gow tribe lived near the Niger river. The hunted crocodiles and hippos. Do tribe were farmers. There was a horse-riding tribe that conquered the rest. All of these tribes became the Songhai tribe.
The Songhai Kingdom was ruled by the Za dynasty. There at least 32 kings in this dynasty. Legend has it that the first king of this dynasty was from Yemen. The 15th king of this dynasty converted to Islam. This kingdom was in Gao. It was part of the trans-Saharan trade. The kingdom became a part of the Mali Empire in the 13th century.
History
Sonni Ali: He created the SE. Timbuktu and Djenne became a part of SE during his reign. He created a navy to patrol the Niger river. The empire he created was bigger than the Mali Empire. He drowned in the Niger or was killed by his son.
Askia the Great: he expanded the empire. He created a great bureaucracy based on traditional African government. He promoted education and Islam, but he was tolerant of other religions. He went on the hajj and gave a lot of $ to charity. He brought back Islamic professors from Egypt and Morocco to Timbuktu. They taught at Sankore Mosque. Askia also promoted astronomy. There were observatories at Gao. Askia was overthrown by his sons and the empire became chaotic. Morocco invaded in 1591. There were 2,500 European soldiers in the Moroccan army at the time of the conquest. Queen Elizabeth I gave weapons to Morocco, which were used during the conquest of SE. The Sultan asked for the weapons.
Cities of Importance
Gao: This was the capital of the Songhai Empire. It started out as a small kingdom and became an empire. The Gao Empire was the strongest empire in West Africa in the 800's. It became the center of the trans-Saharan trade. It was a very urbanized city. Astronomy was taught there.
Timbuktu: This was a great learning center in the Islamic World. People were taught the Koran here and Islamic rituals. A lot of academic subjects were taught here as well.
Djenne: People started living in Djenne in 250 BCE. Many terra-cotta statues were made there. Iron tools were manufactured in Djenne since the founding of it. This city was trading with other parts of Africa and the Mediterranean b4 the arrival of the Arabs.
Economy
Songhai Empire had a great economy because it did a lot of trading. It traded a lot of gold and salt. Tools and religious items were created in this empire. Different tribes and/or clans had different occupants. Some were fishermen, some were doctors, some were lawyers, some were farmers, some were blacksmiths, etc. SE made so much $ from trading it became a target to greedy nations. Salt was used as currency.
Government
The emperor chose the mayors and governors. The ruled the villages and the states. Each state had to pay taxes. The various different states were allowed to govern themselves as long as they followed the orders of the king.
"Local Governor of a province or a town
Police Commissioner
Head Judge
Three levels of military personnel below the position of Captain in the territorial guards
Administrators and military chiefs of the territorial guards
Directors of ports
Chief of the navy responsible for ships and smaller craft
Chief tax collector
Dignitary in charge of markets
Dignitary with responsibility for making saddles
Administrator in charge of the affairs concerning the Arabs and Berbers
Suburban Administrator of a city
Chief of etiquette and protocol
Minister of property
Superintendent of forests
Chief of forests
Superintendent of waterways who policed the rivers, lakes, and fisheries
Minister in charge of affairs concerning the white minorities inhabiting the country
Chief of the cavalry
Inspector of agriculture"
Law
The laws of SE come from Sharia law. Judges were called Qadis. They made sure everyone followed Sharia. The emperor selected the people that were the Qadis. Qadis handled every case, expect treason. The emperor handled treason. There were prisons for code breakers.
Military
Men from conquered states were drafted in the military at first. Then a more organized military was created.
Balama: General of the army
Tara-Farma: Leader of the cavalry.
Hi-Key: Admiral of the navy.
Conclusion
Songhai Empire had a long history. It had great Islamic Emperors. There were 3 important cities, probably more. It was rich because of trade. It had a sweet government and laws. Its military was powerful. I give it an A.
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurtey_people
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_people
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za_Dynasty
http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaNiger.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonni_Ali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askia_Mohammad_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9
http://whgsummativeareeba.weebly.com/
http://www.ducksters.com/history/africa/songhai_empire.php
http://www.everydaylifeinanearlywestafricanempire.com/100factspage.html
http://www.afropedea.org/songhay-empire#TOC-Military
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/africa/songhai.htm Songhai Empire 3 Sudanese Empires Everyday Life in Songhai Islam and Family in Songhai
Introduction
The Mali Empire was created by Sundiata Keita. It lasted over 1235-1600 CE. It had a sweet government and military. It had a great economy because of trading. There were various religions practiced in the Mali Empire, but over time it became more Islamic. Muslims tried to persuade people of other religions to convert. Timbuktu was the most famous city in the empire. Malian and/or other West African sailors traded with Americans. The Mali Empire was at least twice the size of the Ghana Empire.
Origin
Sundiata Keita was the son of a King of Manden Kurufa and the buffalo woman. His mom was called a buffalo woman because she was hunched back and ugly. It took a long time for him to walk and talk, so his father other wives and children made fun of him and his mom. It was prophecised that he would be a great leader.
After his father died his mom took him and his sisters in exile. She was afraid the wives of her deceased husband would kill them. They traveled throughout the Ghana Empire. They found a kingdom that allowed them to stay. This Kingdom was called Mema. Sundiata was admired by the King of Mema. The king gave him a position in the government.
The Sosso Kingdom conquered Sundiata's homeland. People from the Manden Kurufa sought out the child of prophecy. They found him and told him what happened. He left Mema with an army.
Sundiata defeated the evil sorcerer king of the Sosso Kingdom. His magician discovered the weakness of the evil sorcerer king. Prior to that, the king was invincible. He had great magic powers! This was because he had a magical musical instrument. His weakness was a white rooster crest. Sundiata shot an arrow with the crest on it and it hit him. Then he disappeared.
Parts of the Ghana Empire was conquered after the defeat of Somaoro. The emperors of the Mali Empire was known as Mansa. Sundiata Keita is the child of prophecy and the Lion King.
History of Mansas
Manden Kurufa was a 'federation of Mande tribes.' This kingdom was the heart of the Mali Empire. It was a part of the Ghana Empire until the Almoravids attack GE. After that, Manden Kurufa became 12 different kingdoms.
Those kingdoms were conquered by the Sosso Empire; Sundiata Keita destroyed the Sosso Empire
After Sundiata died his son became Mansa. His name was Ouali Keita I. He expanded the empire. He made soldiers become farmers. He went on a hajj to Mecca.
Generals of the Mali army sons were adopted by Ouali. Their last names became Keita because of this adoption. 2 of the sons fought each other 4 control of the empire. Ouati became the next Mensa. He was the Mensa for 4 years. Khalifa became the Mansa after him. He was mentally ill. He shot fire-tipped arrows at people from his rooftop. He was killed in a revolt.
Manding Bory Keita became Mansa after Khalifa was killed. He was Sundiata youngest son. He was known as Mansa Abubakari. He was named after Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was Muhammad father in law.
Sakoura became the next Mansa. He was born a slave and became a general in Sundiata army. He expanded the empire; he conquered a Serer Kingdom. He made trade deals with Tripoli and Morocco. He went on a hajj to Mecca, but when was coming back he got killed. His killers may have been from the Afar tribe.
Ko Mamadi Keita became Mansa after Sakoura. He was Sundiata nephew. He was known as Mansa Gao Keita. He had a good Emperor.
Abunakari II was the next Mansa. He was the son of Mansa Gao Keita. He sent out to navies into the Atlantic ocean and they never came back. He was on the second voyage. Legend as it, they ended up in the Americas.
Mansa Musa Keita I was the next ruler. He was a good Muslim and he turned a school into a university. It is called Sankore. It had the largest library in the world. He went on a hajj and gave away so much gold that the Egypt and Arabia had hyperinflation! He had 12,000 women slaves and 100s of elephants and camels. The animals were carrying food and weapons. On his way back home he met a poet that was also an architect. The poet helped create a mosque in Timbuktu.
Maghan I became the next Mansa. He was the son of the Mansa Musa. He ruled for 4 years. He wasn't fit for the job. He was as bad a ruler as Khalifa.
Souleyman Keita became the next Mansa. He was the brother of Mansa Musa. His senior wife and some generals tried to overthrow him, but they were stopped and his wife was put in jail. He went on a hajj and had diplomatic relationships with Egypt and Morocco. The Wolof revolted during his reign and created their own empire. Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan scholar and traveler. He came to the Mali Empire during Souleyman reign and was very impressed.
Camba Keita became the next Mansa. He was the son of Souleyman. He only ruled for 9 months because he was killed by one of Maghan I sons.
The next Mansa was Mari Djata Keita II. He was a tyrant and he almost bankrupted the empire. He sent a giraffe as a gift to a king in North Africa. He got sick and died.
Mansa Musa Keita II became the new ruler. He improved the economy. Kankoro-Sigui Mari Djata ran the empire behind the scenes during Ketia II reign. He was non-royal. He squashed a rebellion by the Tuareg. Gao became independent at this time.
Tenin Meghan Keita II only ruled for 2 years.
A non-royal became Mansa for the first time in the history of the Mali Empire. His name was Sandaki Keita. He only ruled a year.
Meghan Keita III became Mansa. He may have been of royal blood. The Mossi emperor Bonga invaded Macina, which was a city in the Mali empire. He was unable to conquer it.
Musa Keita III lost Timbuktu to the Tuareg.
Ouali Keita II was Musa's brother. The Portuguese were raiding the coast of Gambia. Malian soldiers killed the raiders. Diogo Gomes develop a diplomatic relationship with the Mali Empire in response to that. The Songhai Empire conquered Mema (the city Sundiata Keita got his army from) and they took Timbuktu from the Tuareg. Mossi conquered Macina and Wagadu (This city-state that created the Ghana Empire).
Mansa Muhammad Keita II ruled over a declining empire. The Fulani invaded provinces in the Mali Empire. Keita II developed closer relationships with Portugal. Songhai Empire took over the salt mines that were a part of the Mali Empire. Muhammad asks Portuguese to help Malians fight the Fulani. The Portuguese refused.
Mansa Muhammad Keita III lost more land to the Songhai Empire(SE). SE took over Mali's copper mines. Mansa sought military help from the Portuguese to combat SE. The Portuguese refused again. Kaabu Empire swallows up Malian provinces in Gambia. Songhai defeats Mali in battle and takes over the palace. Malian forces regroup and kicked out Songhai forces. Futa Tooro takes over a providence of the Mali Empire. The Mali Empire was small at this point.
There were a few more Mansas, but they weren't so influential. After Mahmud Keita, IV died his sons tore the empire apart. They fought over who should rule, which destroyed what little was left of the Mali Empire.
Manden Kuruka became 3 kingdoms. These kingdoms fought each; they would only join forces if they were attacked by another kingdom.
In my opinion, if the royals stayed in power the Mali Empire would have lasted longer. It seems like they made better decisions than the non-royal rulers.
Government
Mansa=King
Gbara=Congress. It was created by the Lion King in 1235 CE. It had 32 members 29 of which were Mandinka. There were 4 voting blocks. The blocks were military, royal, Islamic, and life force manipulators. They created a constitution called Kouroukan Fouga.
Military
Toni-Tigi: 16 clans that made up the army. Their symbol was the arrow and quiver.
Mandekalu: They were the cavalry. They wore chainmail and iron helmets. They used spears and swords in battle.
Kele-Koun: Generals of Ton-Tigi.
Farima: Commander. They answered directly to the Mansa. The Kele-Kouns were subordinate to them.
Slaves were used as soldiers and administors they were called Sofas.
This great military helped create the Mali Empire.
Economy
Mali empire controlled gold and copper mines, salt mines, etc. There were many skilled workers in the empire. There were farmers, fishermen, blacksmiths, potters, leatherworkers, weavers, etc. The Mali Empire traded a lot with Muslims. Blacksmiths created lodges to teach people their trade. Those lodges were connected to various trading cities.
Religion
People in the Mali Empire practiced traditional religions. They believed nature was full of spirits. Every natural object had a spirit in it. They thanked the deities of the earth for their crops. Over time they became more Islamic. Some of the Muslims in the Mali Empire tried to impose Islam on others. That's why the Dogon left the Mali Empire. They wanted to continue to practice the religion of their ancestors. They now live on the border of modern-day Mali.
As the empire became more Islamic, they got more trade from Muslim kingdoms. The Mali Empire gained a lot from Islam and they made Islam more popular in West Africa. Islam is a great religion for imperialism. That is because it is monotheistic.
Timbuktu
It was a great city of Islamic learning. It was created by the Tuareg. It became a part of the Mali Empire around 1300. There were 3 great mosques there. They were great universities. In 1450 there were 100,000 people living there. Timbuktu was ruled by the Tuareg for a period, but it still was a center of learning. It became in greater when it became a part of Songhai Empire. Timbuktu fell off once the SE was destroyed. It got raided a lot by various African tribes. Then Morocco conquered it and killed some of its scholars.
The greatest scholar in Timbuktu was Ahmed Baba. He wrote 50 books and he was a professor at Sankore. One of his books was about grammar. He had a library of over 1,000 books! He had a lot of books translated into Arabic.
African Sailors in the Americas
West African sailors that may have been Malian traded gold for corn with the Mayans. Africans also exported gold tipped spears to Americans. Americans told Columbus about Africans coming to the America. Columbus wrote about in his diary.
Conclusion
This empire seems better than the Benin Empire! The Mali Empire was founded by the Lion King. It lasted for over 300 years. It had a sweet government and military. It became Islamic, which helped in trading and technology. The Republic of Mali is named after this Empire. I give it an A+. References
http://www.bu.edu/africa/files/pdf/SUNDIATA1.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundiata_Keita
http://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/sundiata-keita-lion-king-mali-005733
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soumaoro_Kant%C3%A9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire
http://www.blackpast.org/gah/mali-empire-ca-1200
http://www.ducksters.com/history/africa/empire_of_ancient_mali.php
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mali_Empire
http://histclo.com/country/afr/mali/act/ma-rel.html
http://www.dailykos.com/story/2010/12/5/925755/-
http://www.islamandafrica.com/
http://www.africanholocaust.net//news_ah/africa_contribution_islam.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankore_Madrasah
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gbara
https://www.learner.org/courses/worldhistory/support/reading_11_1.pdf
http://www.globalresearch.ca/before-columbus-how-africans-brought-civilization-to-america/5407584
http://atlantablackstar.com/2015/01/23/10-pieces-of-evidence-that-prove-black-people-sailed-to-the-americas-long-before-columbus/
https://www.britannica.com/place/Timbuktu-Mali
http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/ode-ahmad-baba-al-massufi
http://kentakepage.com/ahmed-baba/ Mali Empire Oral History of Mali Timbuktu Ahmad Baba Africans in early America Islam in Africa
